CD371-positive pediatric B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia: propensity to lineage switch and slow early response to treatment.

ABSTRACT: In the effort to improve immunophenotyping and minimal residual disease (MRD) assessment in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), the international Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster (iBFM) Flow Network introduced the myelomonocytic marker CD371 for a large prospective characterization with a long follow-up. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the clinical and biological features of CD371-positive (CD371pos) pediatric B-cell precursor ALL (BCP-ALL). From June 2014 to February 2017, 1812 pediatric patients with newly diagnosed BCP-ALLs enrolled in trial AIEOP-BFM ALL 2009 were evaluated as part of either a screening (n = 843, Italian centers) or validation cohort (n = 969, other iBFM centers). Laboratory assessment at diagnosis consisted of morphological, immunophenotypic, and genetic analysis. Response assessment relied on morphology, multiparametric flow cytometry (MFC), and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-MRD. At diagnosis, 160 of 1812 (8.8%) BCP-ALLs were CD371pos. This correlated with older age, lower ETV6::RUNX1 frequency, immunophenotypic immaturity (all P < .001), and strong expression of CD34 and of CD45 (P < .05). During induction therapy, CD371pos BCP-ALLs showed a transient myelomonocytic switch (mm-SW: up to 65.4% of samples at day 15) and an inferior response to chemotherapy (slow early response, P < .001). However, the 5-year event-free survival was 88.3%. Among 420 patients from the validation cohort, 27 of 28 (96.4%) cases positive for DUX4-fusions were CD371pos. In conclusion, in the largest pediatric cohort, CD371 is the most sensitive marker of transient mm-SW, whose recognition is essential for proper MFC MRD assessment. CD371pos is associated to poor early treatment response, although a good outcome can be reached after MRD-based ALL-related therapies.

FCM marker importance for MRD assessment in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia: An AIEOP-BFM-ALL-FLOW study group report.

T-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) accounts for about 15% of pediatric and about 25% of adult ALL cases. Minimal/measurable residual disease (MRD) assessed by flow cytometry (FCM) is an important prognostic indicator for risk stratification. In order to assess the MRD a limited number of antibodies directed against the most discriminative antigens must be selected. We propose a pipeline for evaluating the influence of different markers for cell population classification in FCM data. We use linear support vector machine, fitted to each sample individually to avoid issues with patient and laboratory variations. The best separating hyperplane direction as well as the influence of omitting specific markers is considered. Ninety-one bone marrow samples of 43 pediatric T-ALL patients from five reference laboratories were analyzed by FCM regarding marker importance for blast cell identification using combinations of eight different markers. For all laboratories, CD48 and CD99 were among the top three markers with strongest contribution to the optimal hyperplane, measured by median separating hyperplane coefficient size for all samples per center and time point (diagnosis, Day 15, Day 33). Based on the available limited set tested (CD3, CD4, CD5, CD7, CD8, CD45, CD48, CD99), our findings prove that CD48 and CD99 are useful markers for MRD monitoring in T-ALL. The proposed pipeline can be applied for evaluation of other marker combinations in the future.

B cell phenotype and serum levels of interferons, BAFF, and APRIL in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children associated with COVID-19 (MIS-C).

BACKGROUND: Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children associated with COVID-19 (MIS-C) is a late complication of pediatric COVID-19, which follows weeks after the original SARS-CoV-2 infection, regardless of its severity. It is characterized by hyperinflammation, neutrophilia, lymphopenia, and activation of T cells with elevated IFN-γ. Observing the production of autoantibodies and parallels with systemic autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematodes (SLE), we explored B cell phenotype and serum levels of type I, II, and III interferons, as well as the cytokines BAFF and APRIL in a cohort of MIS-C patients and healthy children after COVID-19. RESULTS: We documented a significant elevation of IFN-γ, but not IFN-α and IFN-λ in MIS-C patients. BAFF was elevated in MIS-C patient sera and accompanied by decreased BAFFR expression on all B cell subtypes. The proportion of plasmablasts was significantly lower in patients compared to healthy post-COVID children. We noted the pre-IVIG presence of ENA Ro60 autoantibodies in 4/35 tested MIS-C patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our work shows the involvement of humoral immunity in MIS-C and hints at parallels with the pathophysiology of SLE, with autoreactive B cells driven towards autoantibody production by elevated BAFF.

CD38: A target in relapsed/refractory acute lymphoblastic leukemia-Limitations in treatment and diagnostics.

Daratumumab, an anti-CD38 antibody, is used experimentally in the treatment of relapsed acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). We treated five patients suffering from relapsed ALL with daratumumab. Four patients had T ALL, three of whom achieved complete remission (CR) after treatment and underwent stem cell transplant (SCT). Two of them had a second relapse and died 6 and 8 months after SCT, respectively. One transplanted T ALL patient remained in CR2 15 months after relapse. In the remaining T-ALL patient, the disease progressed under daratumumab treatment, and the patient died early after the first relapse. The B-cell precursor ALL patient with a second CD19-negative relapse, whose disease turned out to be resistant to the combination of daratumumab with chemotherapy, later achieved CR3 with inotuzumab ozogamicin, underwent SCT and remained in CR3. Leukemia burden should be monitored after daratumumab, and care should be taken not to misclassify leukemic cells with false negativity of surface CD38; using an antibody reacting with nondaratumumab epitopes is advantageous.

Blinatumomab overcomes poor prognostic impact of measurable residual disease in pediatric high-risk first relapse B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Blinatumomab, a CD3/CD19 BiTE® (bispecific T cell engager) molecule, was superior to high-risk third course consolidation chemotherapy (HC3) in prolonging event-free survival (EFS) in children with high-risk first relapse B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). Here, we report results from a post hoc measurable residual disease (MRD) analysis of this phase 3 study (NCT02393859). PROCEDURE: Children >28 days and <18 years with high-risk first-relapse B-ALL in cytomorphological complete remission (M1 marrow, <5% blasts) or with M2 marrow (≥5% and <25% blasts) after induction and two cycles of high-risk consolidation chemotherapy (baseline) were enrolled in this trial. Patients received one cycle of blinatumomab (15 µg/m2 /day, 4 weeks, continuous intravenous infusion) or HC3. The primary endpoint was EFS. In this post hoc analysis, patients with MRD <10-4 by PCR were grouped as having positive but not quantifiable (pbnq) or undetectable disease. RESULTS: A higher proportion of patients with MRD <10-4 had undetectable versus pbnq disease after blinatumomab (day 29) than after HC3 (p = 0.0367). Of the 22 patients with MRD ≥10-4 at baseline who achieved MRD remission after blinatumomab, 20 (91%) achieved MRD <10-4 remission by day 15. Patients treated with blinatumomab had improved EFS and overall survival compared with those treated with HC3 independent of end-of-induction or baseline (end-of-second consolidation) MRD levels. CONCLUSIONS: Blinatumomab was more efficacious than HC3 regardless of MRD status before treatment. These data support the role of blinatumomab in inducing deep MRD remission, negating the poor prognostic value of MRD.

TLR8/TLR7 dysregulation due to a novel TLR8 mutation causes severe autoimmune hemolytic anemia and autoinflammation in identical twins.

Our study presents a novel germline c.1715G>T (p.G572V) mutation in the gene encoding Toll-like receptor 8 (TLR8) causing an autoimmune and autoinflammatory disorder in a family with monozygotic male twins, who suffer from severe autoimmune hemolytic anemia worsening with infections, and autoinflammation presenting as fevers, enteritis, arthritis, and CNS vasculitis. The pathogenicity of the mutation was confirmed by in vitro assays on transfected cell lines and primary cells. The p.G572V mutation causes impaired stability of the TLR8 protein, cross-reactivity to TLR7 ligands and reduced ability of TLR8 to attenuate TLR7 signaling. This imbalance toward TLR7-dependent signaling leads to increased pro-inflammatory responses, such as nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNFα. This unique TLR8 mutation with partial TLR8 protein loss and hyperinflammatory phenotype mediated by TLR7 ligands represents a novel inborn error of immunity with childhood-onset and a good response to TLR7 inhibition.

Early-onset pulmonary and cutaneous vasculitis driven by constitutively active SRC-family kinase HCK.

BACKGROUND: Inborn errors of immunity are genetic disorders characterized by various degrees of immune dysregulation that can manifest as immune deficiency, autoimmunity, or autoinflammation. The routine use of next-generation sequencing in the clinic has facilitated the identification of an ever-increasing number of inborn errors of immunity, revealing the roles of immunologically important genes in human pathologies. However, despite this progress, treatment is still extremely challenging. OBJECTIVE: We sought to report a new monogenic autoinflammatory disorder caused by a de novo activating mutation, p.Tyr515∗, in hematopoietic cell kinase (HCK). The disease is characterized by cutaneous vasculitis and chronic pulmonary inflammation that progresses to fibrosis. METHODS: Whole-exome sequencing, Sanger sequencing, mass spectrometry, and western blotting were performed to identify and characterize the pathogenic HCK mutation. Dysregulation of mutant HCK was confirmed ex vivo in primary cells and in vitro in transduced cell lines. RESULTS: Mutant HCK lacking the C-terminal inhibitory tyrosine Tyr522 exhibited increased kinase activity and enhanced myeloid cell priming, migration and effector functions, such as production of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, and production of reactive oxygen species. These aberrant functions were reflected by inflammatory leukocyte infiltration of the lungs and skin. Moreover, an overview of the clinical course of the disease, including therapies, provides evidence for the therapeutic efficacy of the Janus kinase 1/2 inhibitor ruxolitinib in inflammatory lung disease. CONCLUSIONS: We propose HCK-driven pulmonary and cutaneous vasculitis as a novel autoinflammatory disorder of inborn errors of immunity.

An Extensive Quality Control and Quality Assurance (QC/QA) Program Significantly Improves Inter-Laboratory Concordance Rates of Flow-Cytometric Minimal Residual Disease Assessment in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: An I-BFM-FLOW-Network Report.

Monitoring of minimal residual disease (MRD) by flow cytometry (FCM) is a powerful prognostic tool for predicting outcomes in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). To apply FCM-MRD in large, collaborative trials, dedicated laboratory staff must be educated to concordantly high levels of expertise and their performance quality should be continuously monitored. We sought to install a unique and comprehensive training and quality control (QC) program involving a large number of reference laboratories within the international Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster (I-BFM) consortium, in order to complement the standardization of the methodology with an educational component and persistent quality control measures. Our QC and quality assurance (QA) program is based on four major cornerstones: (i) a twinning maturation program, (ii) obligatory participation in external QA programs (spiked sample send around, United Kingdom National External Quality Assessment Service (UK NEQAS)), (iii) regular participation in list-mode-data (LMD) file ring trials (FCM data file send arounds), and (iv) surveys of independent data derived from trial results. We demonstrate that the training of laboratories using experienced twinning partners, along with continuous educational feedback significantly improves the performance of laboratories in detecting and quantifying MRD in pediatric ALL patients. Overall, our extensive education and quality control program improved inter-laboratory concordance rates of FCM-MRD assessments and ultimately led to a very high conformity of risk estimates in independent patient cohorts.

Somatic Mutations in Oncogenes Are in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Acquired De Novo via Deregulated Base-Excision Repair and Alternative Non-Homologous End Joining.

Somatic mutations are a common molecular mechanism through which chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cells acquire resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) therapy. While most of the mutations in the kinase domain of BCR-ABL1 can be successfully managed, the recurrent somatic mutations in other genes may be therapeutically challenging. Despite the major clinical relevance of mutation-associated resistance in CML, the mechanisms underlying mutation acquisition in TKI-treated leukemic cells are not well understood. This work demonstrated de novo acquisition of mutations on isolated single-cell sorted CML clones growing in the presence of imatinib. The acquisition of mutations was associated with the significantly increased expression of the LIG1 and PARP1 genes involved in the error-prone alternative nonhomologous end-joining pathway, leading to genomic instability, and increased expression of the UNG, FEN and POLD3 genes involved in the base-excision repair (long patch) pathway, allowing point mutagenesis. This work showed in vitro and in vivo that de novo acquisition of resistance-associated mutations in oncogenes is the prevalent method of somatic mutation development in CML under TKIs treatment.

A novel class of ZNF384 aberrations in acute leukemia.

Fusion of the ZNF384 gene as the 3' partner to several different 5' partner genes occurs recurrently in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic and mixed phenotype B/myeloid leukemia. These canonical fusions (ZNF384r) contain the complete ZNF384 coding sequence and are associated with a specific gene expression signature. Cases with this signature, but without canonical ZNF384 fusions (ZNF384r-like cases), have been described previously. Although some have been shown to harbor ZNF362 fusions, the primary aberrations remain unknown in a major proportion. We studied 3 patients with the ZNF384r signature and unknown primary genetic background and identified a previously unknown class of genetic aberration affecting the last exon of ZNF384 and resulting in disruption of the C-terminal portion of the ZNF384 protein. Importantly, in 2 cases, the ZNF384 aberration, indel, was missed during the bioinformatic analysis but revealed by the manual, targeted reanalysis. Two cases with the novel aberrations had a mixed (B/myeloid) immunophenotype commonly associated with canonical ZNF384 fusions. In conclusion, we present leukemia cases with a novel class of ZNF384 aberrations that phenocopy leukemia with ZNF384r. Therefore, we show that part of the so-called ZNF384r-like cases represent the same genetic subtype as leukemia with canonical ZNF384 fusions.

Effect of Blinatumomab vs Chemotherapy on Event-Free Survival Among Children With High-risk First-Relapse B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Blinatumomab is a CD3/CD19-directed bispecific T-cell engager molecule with efficacy in children with relapsed or refractory B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). Objective: To evaluate event-free survival in children with high-risk first-relapse B-ALL after a third consolidation course with blinatumomab vs consolidation chemotherapy before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this randomized phase 3 clinical trial, patients were enrolled November 2015 to July 2019 (data cutoff, July 17, 2019). Investigators at 47 centers in 13 countries enrolled children older than 28 days and younger than 18 years with high-risk first-relapse B-ALL in morphologic complete remission (M1 marrow, <5% blasts) or with M2 marrow (blasts ≥5% and <25%) at randomization. Intervention: Patients were randomized to receive 1 cycle of blinatumomab (n = 54; 15 µg/m2/d for 4 weeks, continuous intravenous infusion) or chemotherapy (n = 54) for the third consolidation. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary end point was event-free survival (events: relapse, death, second malignancy, or failure to achieve complete remission). The key secondary efficacy end point was overall survival. Other secondary end points included minimal residual disease remission and incidence of adverse events. Results: A total of 108 patients were randomized (median age, 5.0 years [interquartile range {IQR}, 4.0-10.5]; 51.9% girls; 97.2% M1 marrow) and all patients were included in the analysis. Enrollment was terminated early for benefit of blinatumomab in accordance with a prespecified stopping rule. After a median of 22.4 months of follow-up (IQR, 8.1-34.2), the incidence of events in the blinatumomab vs consolidation chemotherapy groups was 31% vs 57% (log-rank P < .001; hazard ratio [HR], 0.33 [95% CI, 0.18-0.61]). Deaths occurred in 8 patients (14.8%) in the blinatumomab group and 16 (29.6%) in the consolidation chemotherapy group. The overall survival HR was 0.43 (95% CI, 0.18-1.01). Minimal residual disease remission was observed in more patients in the blinatumomab vs consolidation chemotherapy group (90% [44/49] vs 54% [26/48]; difference, 35.6% [95% CI, 15.6%-52.5%]). No fatal adverse events were reported. In the blinatumomab vs consolidation chemotherapy group, the incidence of serious adverse events was 24.1% vs 43.1%, respectively, and the incidence of adverse events greater than or equal to grade 3 was 57.4% vs 82.4%. Adverse events leading to treatment discontinuation were reported in 2 patients in the blinatumomab group. Conclusions and Relevance: Among children with high-risk first-relapse B-ALL, treatment with 1 cycle of blinatumomab compared with standard intensive multidrug chemotherapy before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant resulted in an improved event-free survival at a median of 22.4 months of follow-up. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02393859.

DUX4r, ZNF384r and PAX5-P80R mutated B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia frequently undergo monocytic switch.

Recently, we described B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL) subtype with early switch to the monocytic lineage and loss of the B-cell immunophenotype, including CD19 expression. Thus far, the genetic background has remained unknown. Among 726 children consecutively diagnosed with BCP-ALL, 8% patients experienced switch detectable by flow cytometry (FC). Using exome and RNA sequencing, switch was found to positively correlate with three different genetic subtypes: PAX5-P80R mutation (5 cases with switch out of 5), rearranged DUX4 (DUX4r; 30 cases of 41) and rearranged ZNF384 (ZNF384r; 4 cases of 10). Expression profiles or phenotypic patterns correlated with genotypes, but within each genotype they could not identify cases who subsequently switched. If switching was not taken into account, the B-cell-oriented FC assessment underestimated the minimal residual disease level. For patients with PAX5-P80R, a discordance between FC-determined and PCR-determined MRD was found on day 15, resulting from a rapid loss of the B-cell phenotype. Discordance on day 33 was observed in all the DUX4r, PAX5-P80R and ZNF384r subtypes. Importantly, despite the substantial phenotypic changes, possibly even challenging the appropriateness of BCP-ALL therapy, the monocytic switch was not associated with a higher incidence of relapse and poorer prognosis in patients undergoing standard ALL treatment.

Flash survey on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 infections in paediatric patients on anticancer treatment.

INTRODUCTION: Since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic, it is known that the severe course of the disease occurs mostly among the elderly, whereas it is rare among children and young adults. Comorbidities, in particular, diabetes and hypertension, clearly associated with age, besides obesity and smoke, are strongly associated with the need for intensive treatment and a dismal outcome. A weaker immunity of the elderly has been proposed as a possible explanation of this uneven age distribution. Thus, there is concern that children treated for cancer may allso be at risk for an unfavourable course of infection. Along the same line, anecdotal information from Wuhan, China, mentioned a severe course of COVID-19 in a child treated for leukaemia. AIM AND METHODS: We made a flash survey on COVID-19 incidence and severity among children on anticancer treatment. Respondents were asked by email to fill in a short Web-based survey. RESULTS: We received reports from 25 countries, where approximately 10,000 patients at risk are followed up. At the time of the survey, more than 200 of these children were tested, nine of whom were positive for COVID-19. Eight of the nine cases had asymptomatic to mild disease, and one was just diagnosed with COVID-19. We also discuss preventive measures that are in place or should be taken and treatment options in immunocompromised children with COVID-19. CONCLUSION: Thus, even children receiving anticancer chemotherapy may have a mild or asymptomatic course of COVID-19. While we should not underestimate the risk of developing a more severe course of COVID-19 than that observed here, the intensity of preventive measures should not cause delays or obstructions in oncological treatment.

Cytometric analysis of cell suspension generated by cavitron ultrasonic surgical aspirator in pediatric brain tumors.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to test the possibility of using specimens obtained by a cavitron ultrasonic surgical aspirator (CUSA) in flow and mass cytometry investigations of pediatric brain tumors. METHODS: CUSA specimens obtained from 19 pediatric patients with brain tumors were investigated. Flow and mass cytometry methods were applied to analyze the composition of material collected using the CUSA. Cell suspensions were prepared from CUSA aspirates. Then sample viability was assessed by conventional flow cytometry and subsequently stained with a panel of 31 metal-labeled antibodies. RESULTS: Viability assessment was performed using conventional flow cytometry. Viability of cells in the acquired samples was below 50% in 16 of 19 cases. A mass cytometry investigation and subsequent analysis enabled us to discriminate brain tumor cells from contaminating leukocytes, whose proportions varied across the specimens. The addition of the viability marker cisplatin directly into the mass cytometry panel gave the means to selecting viable cells only for subsequent analyses. The proportion of non-viable cells was higher among tumor cells compared leukocytes. CONCLUSIONS: When the analysis of the tumor cell immunophenotype is performed with markers for determining viability, the expression of the investigated markers can be evaluated. Suitable markers can be selected by high-throughput methods, such as mass cytometry, and those that are diagnostically relevant can be investigated using flow cytometry, which is more flexible in terms of time.

Genomic landscape of pediatric B-other acute lymphoblastic leukemia in a consecutive European cohort.

Novel biological subtypes and clinically important genetic aberrations (druggable lesions, prognostic factors) have been described in B-other acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) during the last decade; however, due to a lack of studies on unselected cohorts, their population frequency and mutual associations still have to be established. We studied 110 consecutively diagnosed and uniformly treated childhood B-other patients using single nucleotide polymorphism arrays and whole exome/transcriptome sequencing. The frequency of DUX4-rearranged, BCR-ABL1-like, ZNF384-rearranged, ETV6-RUNX1-like, iAMP21 and MEF2D-rearranged subtypes was 27%, 15%, 5%, 5%, 4%, and 2%, respectively; 43% of cases were not classified into any of these subtypes (B-rest). We found worse early response to treatment in DUX4-rearranged leukemia and a strong association of ZNF384-rearranged leukemia with B-myeloid immunophenotype. Of the druggable lesions, JAK/STAT-class and RAS/RAF/MAPK-class aberrations were found in 21% and 43% of patients, respectively; an ABL-class aberration was found in one patient. A recently described negative prognostic factor, IKZF1plus , was found in 14% of patients and was enriched in (but not exclusive for) BCR-ABL1-like subtype. PAX5 fusions (including 4 novel), intragenic amplifications and P80R mutations were mutually exclusive and only occurred in the B-rest subset, altogether accounting for 20% of the B-other group. PAX5 P80R was associated with a specific gene expression signature, potentially defining a novel leukemia subtype. Our study shows unbiased European population-based frequencies of novel ALL subtypes, recurrent (cyto)genetic aberrations and their mutual associations. This study also strengthens and widens the current knowledge of B-other ALL and provides an objective basis for optimization of current genetic diagnostics.

Comprehensive Molecular Profiling for Relapsed/Refractory Pediatric Burkitt Lymphomas-Retrospective Analysis of Three Real-Life Clinical Cases-Addressing Issues on Randomization and Customization at the Bedside.

In order to identify reasons for treatment failures when using targeted therapies, we have analyzed the comprehensive molecular profiles of three relapsed, poor-prognosis Burkitt lymphoma cases. All three cases had resembling clinical presentation and histology and all three patients relapsed, but their outcomes differed significantly. The samples of their tumor tissue were analyzed using whole-exome sequencing, gene expression profiling, phosphoproteomic assays, and single-cell phosphoflow cytometry. These results explain different treatment responses of the three histologically identical but molecularly different tumors. Our findings support a personalized approach for patient with high risk, refractory, and rare diseases and may contribute to personalized and customized treatment efforts for patients with limited treatment options like relapsed/refractory Burkitt lymphoma. SUMMARY: The main aim of this study is to analyze three relapsed Burkitt lymphoma patients using a comprehensive molecular profiling, in order to explain their different outcomes and to propose a biomarker-based targeted treatment. In cases 1 and 3, the tumor tissue and the host were analyzed prospectively and appropriate target for the treatment was successfully implemented; however, in case 2, analyses become available only retrospectively and his empirically based rescue treatment did not hit the right target of his disease.